Prostitutes Manduria,

Prostitutes Manduria

In a broad, Marshallian sense, formal rights that is civic and political rights , and therefore even the right to contract, must be substantiated by social rights e. These metaphors were all impregnated with gendered figures and images, which, as Alberto Banti has suggested in a recent book, Prostitutes Manduria aimed to convey strong emotions linked to manly Prostitutes Manduria Banti, ; see also Patriarca, Palermo: Sellerio editore.

By the end of May I had completed a total of 19 interviews with 24 key Prostitutes Manduria working in protection programmes in all three research sites.

Key actors interviewed and research sites. It was managed by a group of women and the representative I interviewed falls within the psychologist category. Of the other two psychologists who were interviewed one was a representative of the non religious Parsec group and one worked in the IOM in Rome.

For this purpose, in Prostitutes Manduria beginning I attempted to elaborate two different interview schedules for the different typologies of actors, one, for institutional actors Prostitutes Manduria lawyers, focusing on more technical questions about the law, another, for social actors, focusing on more general questions related to the social process involved in social protection. However, from the first interviews conducted I realised that all actors involved in victim Prostitutes Manduria were more or less familiar with Prostitutes Manduria technical i.

I used some prompts for each of the 9 questions see appendix 1. Before starting with the interview process I showed each interviewee a short explanation of the research aims see appendix 1. As a result of using a questionnaire, I was able to gain not just qualitative data from open-ended questions, but also some more structured data from the questionnaire.

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I used two Prostitutes Manduria different interview schedules for migrant women who were still working in prostitution and for migrant women who entered Article 18 Prostitutes Manduria programmes.

Apart from asking about their nationality, age, civil status, and whether they had children or not, I asked all migrant women to tell Prostitutes Manduria about their migratory and work stories, and whether they chose prostitution as an option. Then I asked VoTs why they decided to stop working as prostitutes and enter Article 18 programmes, how they view these programmes, what kind of work Prostitutes Manduria found after protection programmes, whether they viewed Article 18 as an instrument that moved them from slavery to freedom.

Sex workers, on Prostitutes Manduria other hand, Prostitutes Manduria asked if they thought to stop sex work, if they would use Article 18, and if they thought they might be entitled to Article 18 programmes see appendix 3.

In the next section I will give an account of the interview process with migrant women VoTs and sex workers. The various NGOs and local authorities in charge of the programmes acted as gatekeepers to Prostitutes Manduria women and refused to allow access. In Lecce, the problem was more linked to the climate of tension created by the scandal around the way in which the Regina Pacis detention centre was run.

This left me with Catania and Palermo as the only places where I could spend more time on negotiating access to such women, given my limited time and resources. In the end, I managed to contact a flight house in a small locality of the Palermo Prostitutes Manduria, where I was able to interview 2 young women in social protection programmes, one Albanian and one Nigerian.

It is also important to say Prostitutes Manduria, although interviews with women under social protection programmes were all done in Sicily, two of the interviewees had experienced prostitution in other parts of Italy, and even started protection Prostitutes Manduria in other cities in the North. Of the 5 VoTs under protection programmes I had planned to interview, I could get access to only 4 in the end.

The people from the flight house in Palermo and the coordinator of the flight houses in the Catania area helped me as they could, but they both said that they did not have many women and that those already in social protection programmes had always Prostitutes Manduria in Prostitutes Manduria to their new situation and they preferred not to upset them.

Also, they said that women who had completed programmes Prostitutes Manduria had moved out from the flight house were very busy working and often were no longer in contact with the voluntary group.

This I found was in contrast with what professionals working in flight houses and in protection programmes tended to say during interviews, which is that the women always Prostitutes Manduria in touch with them.

Prostitutes Manduria also wanted to interview migrant sex workers who were not in protection programmes, and I initially thought that, as a voluntary worker involved in the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases STD among migrant sex workers, I would easily get the sex workers I already knew to agree to be interviewed on issues concerning their migration and prostitution stories.

However, Prostitutes Manduria the sex workers I knew were reluctant to speak in detail about their migration story. In particular Nigerian women, who are the main migrant group in sex work in the Catania area where LILA operates, were extremely suspicious and sometimes even aggressive about being asked certain questions even though they had consented to the interview in general.

The interviews I could carry Prostitutes Manduria were often done in their work Prostitutes Manduria, that is in the streets while they were having a break, and this, for obvious reasons, made it difficult to get all the information I wanted to Prostitutes Manduria from them, and made the process of interviewing itself technically difficult disturbed tape recording. In the end I interviewed 5 sex workers, of whom only 2 gave me in-depth information about their migration and prostitution history.

The other interviewees comprised 2 Nigerian women and 1 woman from Cameroon, and they were all carried out on the street, with the above-said consequences. Interviews with migrant women lasted from half an hour to two hours. Table 3. While the Prostitutes Manduria of my fieldwork consisted of in-depth Prostitutes Manduria, it is important here to stress that, as well as relying on my interview material, I could draw on all the background information I had gathered during my previous work for LILA, particularly as far as qualitative data on migrant prostitution is concerned.

The reason why I want to highlight these other data is that it certainly Prostitutes Manduria into my fieldwork notes, adding meaning to some of the narratives gained from key actors and migrant women alike. Having said that, in dealing with my qualitative data, the first step was to make sense of the mass of words collected. I followed two different approaches to analysing interview data and questionnaire data.

In the first case I began by putting all interview transcripts in one Word file, ordering interviews by type of key actor e. As for the analysis of the questionnaire, I proceeded by putting all definitions in the questionnaire into an Excel file.

I used different Excel spreadsheets for each Prostitutes Manduria the 8 questions and, by filling the top cells with all definitions linked to each question and the cells of the left column with interviewee types police, lawyer, etc.

Of course, there are limitations in applying this approach. For Prostitutes Manduria hand, I was not working with an equal number of interviewees for each category. Moreover, each category Prostitutes Manduria biased by the different gender of interviewees Prostitutes Manduria it e. Another limitation linked to the choice of a questionnaire with pre-set definitions of key concepts is that I could not forsee the importance of some categories which emerged later on in the research process.

Another limitation in working with such a model is that some of the questions asked did not turn out to be relevant to my research questions as they were being formulated during the research process. Having discussed the technical aspects of data analysis, I will now proceed to make a more reflexive discussion on the method used, focusing in particular on the sample choice, the ethical issues linked to qualitative research methods, and a note Prostitutes Manduria translation.

Prostitutes Manduria every action Prostitutes Manduria the members of the community specifies and elaborates further the meaning of these concepts, and this in turn allows a better understanding, even retrospectively, of the observed behaviour.

Giglioli and Dal Lago,p. It Prostitutes Manduria therefore important Prostitutes Manduria I make some reflections on the methodology I used in the course of field research. However, given the sensitivity of the research topic and that, so far as migrant sex workers and VoTs Prostitutes Manduria concerned, they Prostitutes Manduria a hidden population, it Prostitutes Manduria be impossible for Prostitutes Manduria researcher to secure a truly random and representative sample.

Within the constraints operating on me, I can nevertheless say that, as far as the sample of key actors is concerned, it was adequate for the purpose of the research. It provided a Prostitutes Manduria both regionally and between religious and non religious groups; it included Prostitutes Manduria as well as women; and it covered the full spectrum of actors involved in identifying and assisting VoTs in Italy. As far as the sample of VoTs and sex workers are concerned, there are more serious limitations.

Likewise, the sex workers who were willing to be interviewed may have had particular histories different from those who were not willing to be interviewed. As pointed out by Wahab and Sloanthere is a risk that researchers, by focusing excessively on street sex workers, contribute to perpetuate stereotypes, while, on the other hand, it makes other forms of sex Prostitutes Manduria invisible.

This implies a responsibility on the sociologist to explain in appropriate detail, and in terms meaningful to participants, what the research is about, who is undertaking and financing it, why it is being undertaken, and how it is to be disseminated and Prostitutes Manduria. I also explained to each interviewee the aims and content of the interview and Prostitutes Manduria fact that the research was funded by the 5 British Sociological Association — Statement of Ethical Practice,p.

I also showed all interviewees a letter from the University certifying my identity as a PhD student and my research topic and interests. With all interviewees Prostitutes Manduria was careful to abide to the BSA ethical guidelines on anonymity and confidentiality. However, I Prostitutes Manduria not guarantee anonymity to NGOs and other institutions which were the object of my study.

The study did not aim to discredit Prostitutes Manduria organisations, but, rather, to assess specific policy choices and the discourses underpinning these choices.

2 Pernille Baardson, Prostitution and Poverty: A prostitution or by marriage of European male colonizers with white women. Manduria: Laicata. Girls in Gereshk Prostitutes Helmand Prostitutes Gereshk. Telephones of Sluts Gereshk Afghanistan Gwreshk Now I am not scared.

Where negative observations about certain organisations appear in the thesis, I either merely report what was already in the media, or, since the kind of policy I was investigating about was supposed to benefit VoTs and Prostitutes Manduria NGOs, I report what within this policy affects negatively VoTs, even though to do this may also affect the reputation of some groups.

There are, however, some serious ethical concerns which are related to the power relation between researchers and researched and which I would Prostitutes Manduria to discuss in more detail.

In the course of field research Prostitutes Manduria was in a different power position Prostitutes Manduria the various key actors working in social protection for VoTs and with the women sex workers and VoTs themselves.

During Prostitutes Manduria encounters with these different actors I entered into social interactions that were shaped by the different gender, age, professional role, and, as far as migrant sex workers and VoTs are concerned, different ethnic background, Prostitutes Manduria by interviewer and interviewees. The process of accessing and Prostitutes Manduria specific Prostitutes Manduria such as judges, the police, and prosecutors reflected, to some extent, these problems and, although interviewing these actors was not quite the Prostitutes Manduria as interviewing politicians or Members of Parliament MPsI nevertheless had to use some strategies to Prostitutes Manduria them, and in some cases some actors I intended to interview e.

On these occasions, then, I found myself in the position described by Puwarwho, drawing on feminist research and feminists interviewing women, observes that interview rapport and minimal social distance was more likely to develop when both the researched and the researcher shared the same gender, ethnicity or some other aspect of their identity, as this allowed for identification and empathy between the interviewer and interviewee. Indeed, there is an ongoing debate on the special ethical considerations which researchers should take on board when embarking on field research on sex workers and VoTs.

Thus, in a provocative essay on ethics and research on sex workers, Maria Laura Agustinp. And, having just mentioned my language, I would like to close Prostitutes Manduria chapter Prostitutes Manduria one last note on translation. All interview extracts are translations of original interviews conducted in Italian, sometimes with some Nigerian women in a mixture of English and Italian. I have in all this translation work tried to report the original meaning and, if there are some inaccuracies or distortions, they were made in good faith.

Drawing from her analysis, we can graphically illustrate the theoretical paradigm which has traditionally explained slavery through two intersecting systems of bipolar opposition: one concerning free and unfree labour and revolving around concepts of self- Prostitutes Manduria and property; the other concerning belonging and exclusion and revolving around concepts of community, identity and citizenship, as in Figure 1 below see Brace, Figure 1. This itself is linked to issues of status and of legal rights, and to the ways in which these issues depend on specific social constructions of certain subjects as inferior on grounds of their gender, racial identity, and sexuality.

Prostitutes Manduria these elements also determine different experiences and degrees of, and resistance to, exploitation, marginalisation and abuse.

Thus, the experiences of migrant prostitute women can be read through a more flexible model, whereby A, B, C, D, in figure 1 consist of transition areas within which people move according to economic, socio- cultural, and geo-political circumstances. I will start with an outline of the principal conceptualisation of slavery as a modern category, and then look at the development of new definitions of slavery throughout the twentieth century in international law.

I Prostitutes Manduria then conclude by discussing the relevance of the literature review and analysis in relation to my research agenda and questions. As a consequence we have a wealth of literature on the subject of slavery from ancient times to the present which has produced theories and myths about slavery.

The Atlantic slave trade and the creation of New World slavery marked a new era during which western Enlightenment thought constructed slavery as a concept in opposition to the idea of freedom, and yet Prostitutes Manduria allowed for the establishment of a legal system of slavery outside Europe, in the American colonies.

Drescher,p. In accounting for definitions of slavery, scholars have found it important to distinguish between theory and practice, social construction and social reality.

Laura Brace argues that slavery is defined both in terms of legal ownership and rights Prostitutes Manduria in terms of labour and social relations.

Brace, The Politics of Property. Labour, Freedom and Belonging. Edinburgh University Press, See also G. In terms of legal status, definitions of slavery are to be traced in the contract theories formulated by early liberal philosophers. The question of a moral ground in defining slavery is raised by Brace in discussing the connections between slavery and property. This state of degradation amounts to a condition of dishonour for the slave with a corresponding sense of honour accruing to the master, and this honour-dishonour dichotomy is a distinguishing feature of slavery Prostitutes Manduria a social relation, that is as a relation between a master and a slave.

The dishonour of the slave originated from the violence implied in a relation which was created as an act of conquest. The three constituting elements of violence, natal alienation, and dishonour characterise slavery as a relation of domination, distinct from any other for the fact that only in it the three features occur at the same time see Lott, This conception Prostitutes Manduria slavery has centred on symbolic representation Prostitutes Manduria questions of socio-legal constructions of the slave as an outsider from the imagined community as well as on questions of ritualised degradation, which include body exposure, consisting in the treatment of the naked human body as animal-like e.

The master-slave relation, in this perspective, is a social and political process which goes from the personal to the institutional and state dimension, so that it invests the whole culture and polity of a slave society.

Slavery, says Patterson, is more than any other aspect of human existence highly symbolised, because the inherent violence which it implies and on which it always rests must be justified by some kind of ideology, translated into a right in legal codes, and neutralised through cultural means, particularly religion, Prostitutes Manduria that the world could be understood in terms of those who belonged to a shared Prostitutes Manduria of values, and those who did not belong and for this reason deserved Prostitutes Manduria be treated as sub-humans Patterson, The slave society of the ante-bellum South is a typical example of slave ideology based on the concept of honour and degradation compounded by a strong paternalistic element Patterson, ; Genovese, It also poses questions of race and class as discriminating Prostitutes Manduria, since slaves as outsiders and as people who are incorporated in the community as enemies are usually associated with ethnically or racially different people or with those placed in the lower classes Blackburn, Moreover, ownership rights are exercised over persons who are not conventionally defined as slaves, like wives, husbands, children, employees, professional athletes and football stars Patterson, ; Brace, ; Blackburn, There is therefore something else, other than ownership, that makes slaves a category apart, and this is the fact that there is no reciprocity of rights and duties Prostitutes Manduria the master-slave relationship, Prostitutes Manduria the very fact that those who have no power cannot claim to have their rights and dignity recognised, and their powerlessness and rightlessness rests on the original violence which turned them into slaves.

If labour, however, in no way defines slave status, then there is no way out from slavery. Indeed, there is a whole generation of Marxist-oriented scholars who have linked slavery Prostitutes Manduria the mode of production on which a given society is based.

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The fundamental difference between slave and wage labour is expressed by Turner in terms of a passage from a legal status to another, a passage which is historically traced in the upheavals and revolutions which marked the history of the Americas during the nineteenth century, and which finally led to the destruction of property rights in persons.

This process was one where indigenous forms of dependency which allowed for the Prostitutes Manduria of people from one social group to Prostitutes Manduria were used outside the African context, in the Americas and in the more developed economies of the Muslim Middle East. African opening towards the Islamic states and the European market as well as other economic and political factors allowed for an integrated slave system which moved slaves from the periphery to the more developed economic and political systems both within and Prostitutes Manduria Africa Lovejoy, ; Lovejoy et al, This resulted in a radical change whereby slaves, even in those Prostitutes Manduria like Africa, where they were normally absorbed within the lineage group for domestic use, were increasingly employed for productive Prostitutes Manduria Lovejoy, ; Lovejoy et al, Focusing on Brazil and the Caribbean, other historians have also discredited the idea of slavery as a relation based on the rigid master-slave model.

An analysis of slavery in historical Marxist terms allows us to return to the question of Prostitutes Manduria connections between the creation of an international capitalist economy and the transfer of Prostitutes Manduria harshest form of labour to the periphery of the Prostitutes Manduria economic influence, in the colonies. On slave revolts Prostitutes Manduria the ancient world see: Diodoro Siculo. La rivolta degli schiavi in Sicilia. Palermo: Sellerio editore. It helped in this sense to Prostitutes Manduria the myth of a free western world, which is enduring and effective until today, when one western nation can wage a war against any non western nation on the ground that it is undemocratic, therefore barbarian.

What surfaces from this overview is that the question of defining slavery as a social and economic system cannot be set within a theoretical framework Prostitutes Manduria on a rigid separation between slave labour and free labour, but it should be considered within a more flexible paradigm where Prostitutes Manduria is part of a continuum of different forms of labour exploitation, each of which are linked to Prostitutes Manduria different ways in which subjects are constructed within a given community on the basis of some characteristics which are offered in different times and contexts as natural, fixed markers of inferiority.

If with the former pact men created the public sphere where all men are supposed to be free and equal, with the latter men created the private sphere, established by the marriage contract.

In general she was very pleased to talk about something she knew a lot about and with someone who also had intellectual interest in the subject.

In marriage men become masters of Prostitutes Manduria wives, who must labour and give sexual services within Prostitutes Manduria family and whose Prostitutes Manduria is similar to that of slaves. Prostitutes Manduria,p. With the institution of service, domesticity and womanhood were codified through specific ideas about class, race and ethnicity, as well as gender Brace, But sexuality has not been constructed in the same way for working class women, for black women, and for middle- class women.

The different degrees of incorporation of different subjects into society reflected their differing lack of self-ownership and disengagement from their bodily nature, since: Honour and degradation, belonging and exclusion, labour and drudgery are all inflected by class and by power relations between women.

Brace,p. For example, Pateman considers prostitution as but another example of the original sexual contract, through which men exercise their orderly sexual Prostitutes Manduria to women. Other scholars have critiqued this approach to prostitution as problematic because it is premised upon a rigid Prostitutes Manduria of power relations implying domination and subordination.

For the purpose of this thesis, it is also useful to consider prostitution not just in terms of sexual, but also Prostitutes Manduria boundaries. As I indicated at the beginning of this chapter, the historical form of slavery linked to the Atlantic slave trade and the enslavement of black Africans in the Prostitutes Manduria during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has come to be treated as a par excellence form of slavery, popularly represented with images of black people in chains.

These laws began to distinguish between classic or traditional slavery, associated with chattel slavery as the complete ownership of human beings on the one hand, and contemporary forms of slavery see Rijken, From the late s onwards, and particularly during the s, the concept has gained a new impetus and meaning, particularly through its being linked to the trafficking and smuggling of undocumented migrant people who end up in extremely exploitative and abusive labour contexts.

In other words the prohibition of slavery is recognised as an international customary law, a kind of constitutional law, binding all states Rijken, ; Bales, ; Saulle, While the Declaration accepts the definition of slavery provided by the Convention, the Supplementary Convention tried to fill the gap, as it were, between that definition and the realities of labour exploitation in its various forms.

Forced labour was also treated by the Convention as a Prostitutes Manduria practice which may develop into a condition analogous to slavery and, therefore, was not viewed as a practice which in itself fell within the remit of the Slavery Convention Rijken, This suggests that within the UN slavery was separated from issues of labour exploitation and therefore was defined according to criteria pertaining the rights of ownership exercised over human beings or according to some subjective characteristic of the Prostitutes Manduria concerned e.

All this is particularly relevant when we turn to another form of contemporary slavery which has attracted great attention and which is of particular interest for this thesis: trafficking in persons. The history of human trafficking began in late nineteenth century, when European empires were in their twilight. Like today, then also women Prostitutes Manduria part in massive migrations from the country-side to the cities and abroad, and their presence as unaccompanied individuals was viewed as a threat to the health of the bourgeois classes Agustin, Women from the poorer classes became the target of social anxiety about racial and sexual promiscuity, and consequently they became the object of special social control and restrictive migration laws Doezema, Prostitutes Manduria reality, women came to the cities Prostitutes Manduria the impoverished villages to seek better economic 10 Conny Prostitutes Manduria,Trafficking in Persons.

Prosecution from a European Perspective. See also Berardelli, After World War II, the UN arrived, inat the adoption of the Convention for the Suppression of the Prostitutes Manduria in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, which remained the main document of reference until the adoption of the Palermo Protocol in Darley, Prostitutes Manduria Human Prostitutes Manduria law, since its inception, has constantly been entangled with the Prostitutes Manduria of prostitution as a form of slavery, and, from the s onwards it has been mainly feminist groups and organisations which have, on a national and international level, picked up the metaphor of slavery once again to describe the Prostitutes Manduria of migrant women working in prostitution and to urge the international community to produce new legal instruments to deal with the issue.

It is with Prostitutes Manduria developments that I will try to deal with in the next section. This document is the first one of this type to mark a new effort on the part of Prostitutes Manduria member states and officials to include exploitation in sectors other than prostitution as one of the crimes involved in trafficking, which in Article 3 is defined as: a The recruitment, transportation, Prostitutes Manduria, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.

Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs; b The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in subparagraph a of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subparagraph a have been used.

United Prostitutes Manduria, Web Prostitutes Manduria www. And concludes that: The Trafficking Protocol establishes a set of existing and new rights for victims of trafficking and specifies the obligations of state parties to support and defend these rights.

The Protocol is, then, a document actively involved in the construction of meaning and possibility in Prostitutes Manduria global domain and may have an important impact on the global status of women. As such, it is also an important document for feminist analysis. Sullivan,p. The approach adopted by CATW during the s Prostitutes Manduria early s was one which considered the trafficking Convention inadequate to combat the problem of sexual slavery and trafficking and which called for a new international Convention Against Sexual Exploitation which would introduce criminal penalties against the perpetrators but which would not subject prostitutes, as the victims of sexual exploitation, to any legal penalties, provided they gave up prostitution Sullivan,p.

I will return to these issues in chapter 7, when I deal with abolitionism. Similarly, the differentiation made by the UN Transnational Crime Convention between trafficking and smuggling through the provision of another Protocol where the latter is defined as the procuring of illegal entry to migrant people who are actively consenting and pay for the Prostitutes Manduria provided, has been questioned on the ground that there are Prostitutes Manduria overlapping features between them.

For other authors, trafficking, like smuggling, is part of a Prostitutes Manduria of commodification of migration, which involves the operations of a Prostitutes Manduria of actors, both medium-size organisations and single individuals, who may use both legal and illegal channels to carry out their migration business Salt and Stein, ; see also Twomey, I shall speak in more detail about victim protection policy when we turn to the Italian case.

As many authors have argued, anti-trafficking campaigns have historically led to State responses in the area of migration and prostitution regimes and criminal law which, Prostitutes Manduria we will see in the case of Italy, while restricting freedom of movement, penalise migrant prostitutes and perpetuate Prostitutes Manduria and cultural stereotypes by locating migrant women within a post-colonial discourse around culture and oppression Doezema, ; Kapur, ; see also Kempadoo, ; Murray, ; Sullivan, In other words, it is not necessary that the crime of trafficking is transnational and is committed by an organised criminal group Rijken, What distinguishes the Framework Decision on a European level, however, is that, notwithstanding Prostitutes Manduria intention to keep within the definition proposed by the Palermo Protocol, it stresses the importance of the situation of the victim and not just the criminal behaviour of traffickers Darley,p.

With this respect, the Protocol definition accomplishes the goal of making trafficking a criminal process which contains in itself the crime of slavery in all its variegated forms see paragraph a of Trafficking Protocol above. With respect to the treatment of prostitution as a form of slavery in particular, Wijers and Lap-Chew have pointed out that this has created even more confusion around the concept of slavery, since for the first time an Prostitutes Manduria prostitutionrather than a specific power relation within the activity, is considered a form of slavery Wijers and Prostitutes Manduria, ; see also Bindman, See Conny Rijken, pp.

In other words, while different agencies have tended to call slavery different institutions according to their main interests and concerns, there is nevertheless a wide consensus today that contemporary forms of slavery differ from traditional, chattel slavery, Prostitutes Manduria in terms of how control, coercion and violence is exercised in the new global context.

Author of Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economyand more recently of Understanding Global SlaveryBales is Prostitutes Manduria most articulate supporter of the view that slavery has never disappeared, that it has acquired a new character in the globalised economy and for this reason must be studied, researched and understood if we want to rid the world of slavery.

While both debt bondage and contract slavery are the two Prostitutes Manduria widespread forms of slavery to be found respectively in the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia, Brazil and Thailand, chattel slavery represents only a small proportion of slaves in the world, to be found mainly in western Africa and in Mauritania Bales, What old and new slavery have in common, says Bales, is the complete control of the person enslaved and the violence through which control is exercised.

He finds these three dimensions of loss of free will, appropriation of labour power and the use of violence in a number Prostitutes Manduria typical examples of new slavery: white slavery, forced labour, debt bondage, child prostitution, forced prostitution, sexual slavery Bales, Furthermore many slaves were not in long-term relationships with their masters, as they were subject to Prostitutes Manduria mortality and likely to be sold on to other slave owners.

While he considers slavery and trafficking to be phenomena particularly hard to quantify, he nevertheless does not shy away from giving estimates about Prostitutes Manduria, with slaves amounting to 27 million worldwide and trafficked people being between seven hundred and 4 million Bales, For slavery, however, he is the expert and his Prostitutes Manduria of the number of slaves in the world has been accepted by both national and international Prostitutes Manduria, and even by part of the academic community.

These included reports by US government agencies, by the ILO, by experts in some countries, by NGOs, by other national governments, work by academic experts to a less extent because academics do not seem so keen to produce statistics on slaveryand press reports, especially the New York Times.

McDonald, ; see also Chapkis, Thus, in the US there has been criticism about the ways in which government officials and religious NGOs use figures on sex trafficking, regarded as the largest category of modern-day slavery. Clearly, Bales, who very vaguely mentions the fact Prostitutes Manduria there exists an unresolved inequality problem between the North and the South of the world, does not see the problem of slavery as centrally related to Prostitutes Manduria inequality, but with the fact that Prostitutes Manduria are some countries with backward cultures which allow children to be sold from one family to another.

See comments at web site: www. While he warns at times that there is a danger that trafficking gets sensationalised through an excessive focus on prostitution, what he does throughout his book is exactly this. Trafficking in persons is considered by Bales as a slave trade related to contemporary smuggling and illegal immigration, forced migration and greedy Prostitutes Manduria networks.

To quote him: [Smuggling and trafficking] operations can be as simple as the smuggling and subsequent trafficking Prostitutes Manduria an individual by another individual over a border without proper documentation — by transport vehicle or foot — or sophisticated operations moving large numbers, using forged documents and generating huge profits that must subsequently be laundered. Trafficking may involve offences against the state, such as abuse of immigration laws, document forgery, corruption of Prostitutes Manduria officials, money laundering, and tax evasion.

Other violations are directed against the victims: unlawful coercion or threat, extortion, aggravated assault, sexual assault, rape, or even murder.

Bales,pp. In saying this, Bales does not Prostitutes Manduria to be aware that linking sexual and other forms of exploitation exclusively to illegal immigration is to miss the point about the complexity of labour exploitation. This applies particularly to migrants employed within western families as domestic Prostitutes Manduria, a category which is notoriously subject to exploitation and abuse whether or Prostitutes Manduria the employment is documented and about which Bales does not seem able or willing to give much in the way of evidence or examples.

On the other hand Bales, Prostitutes Manduria has warned us about the danger of stressing trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, gives only examples of just such trafficking cases, typically the Nigerian prostitute who has been brutalised and coerced through magical rituals. What makes this view untenable as a general rule is that there Prostitutes Manduria been substantial evidence from research, both academic and non academic, that the majority of migrant prostitutes who are indebted and work in European countries manage to pay their debts back.

His arguments seem to imply that the public, instead, should understand that most all? For this reason Prostitutes Manduria regards the Swedish law which criminalises the demand for sex acts as a positive example, Prostitutes Manduria the fact that research has not indicated any positive Prostitutes Manduria in terms of combatting trafficking.

While for sex trafficking Bales seems to suggest a legal approach in the direction of abolitionism or even a mild form of prohibitionism in the law pertaining to prostitution, accompanied by various educational client-oriented projects, for other forms of trafficking he suggests, in order to reduce demand, a legalisation of migratory channels. This would make the demand for cheap labour easy to meet through a legal system of migration and labour.

So Bales seems to suggest that it is acceptable for migrant people to be used as cheap labour, and to drudge endlessly in a private house or in a factory, even when the person might have higher education, as long as this happens within the framework of the law.

We saw how slavery and related concepts of self-ownership and property cannot be understood without reference to Prostitutes Manduria of belonging and community. My analysis suggests that liberal theoretical accounts of slavery as the opposite of freedom and of slave Prostitutes Manduria as the opposite of wage labour are inadequate; that unfree labour is better understood through a continuum where slavery is one extreme of two poles containing in between them a variety of different labour conditions.

It would mean that the concept of slavery has taken on a Prostitutes Manduria of its own, detached from the history of modern slavery and the complexities related to that history, in terms of the different socio- economic, political, and geographical, as well as specifically historical, circumstances in which slave and master relationships took place, the different degrees of dependencies involved, the role of agency and rebellion, the role of gender, which I have outlined in the first section of this chapter.

If this was so, their approach to contemporary migration and associated servile labour would be one that mystifies the Prostitutes Manduria reality of Prostitutes Manduria international capitalism and its thirst for replaceable, flexible, cheap, and vulnerable labour.

This is the subject I will explore in the next chapter. In Prostitutes Manduria I will try to highlight the most salient symbolic Prostitutes Manduria of Italian nationalism as encapsulated in the language and Prostitutes Manduria of the Risorgimento period namely the role of woman and land, and the intertwining Prostitutes Manduria traditional values linked to blood, religion, honour and kinshipwith Prostitutes Manduria modern ideas coming from the Enlightenment, with its rationalism and its ideas of freedom and independence.

Italian pre-fascist and fascist colonial history will be presented in continuity Prostitutes Manduria the evolution of its identity formation in opposition to an Other, be it the internal southerner Prostitutes Manduria the external colonised African.

Artist. Anonyme ; Title of artwork. Japanese prostitutes in a cage, Yokohama ; Technique. Gelatin-silver print ; Signature. Not signed ; Date of print. extortion, drug trafficking, and prostitution on an international scale, Nazareno Malorgio () Reggente clan Stranieri di Manduria present.

Again, the role of woman and the gendered image of colonial conquest will be important. All this sets the historical, socio-political and cultural backdrop within which our study of social protection programmes in the three Italian cities of Lecce, Catania and Rome will be analysed. From this perspective, it helps us to understand the importance of language, for example the importance that metaphors had in the building of Prostitutes Manduria, particularly the gendered images and fantasies that played such a prominent part in European national and colonial experience.

Italy is particularly instructive with this respect. The vast literature of these years is replete with metaphors used Prostitutes Manduria describe Italy before unification. These metaphors were all impregnated with gendered figures and images, which, as Alberto Banti has suggested in a recent book, were aimed to convey strong emotions linked to manly honour Banti, ; see also Patriarca, Prostitutes Manduria Recent studies on these 17 Vincenzo Gioberti, cited in Patriarca,para 12; see also Del Boca, They suggest that behind the words of freedom and independence from foreign rule, there lay a more obscure concept of nation and unification into a unitary state.

Banti finds that the object of desire of Italian patriots, the nation that is, was pursued through the use of a range of pre-existing linguistic structures, such Prostitutes Manduria honour, religion and kinship, and the idea of nation which ensued was therefore marked by elements of blood and land suolowhich we tend to associate more Prostitutes Manduria German nation building see Banti, The creation of the Italian nation-state, then, was purported not only through the values of liberty and independence, but also through a call Prostitutes Manduria honour: Prostitutes Manduria honour offended by the violation of the land, of the dignity of the people, and of the purity of Italian women.

In the context of European Enlightenment, the Italian character seemed at odds with civilisation and Christian values, and parallels between Italy and the Orient were in fact recurrent in much literature of the time Patriarca, In order to Prostitutes Manduria raised to its proper place in Europe as a civilised and Christian nation-state, Italy, then, needed Prostitutes Manduria go through a process of de-feminization and de-Orientalization, thus to regain its industrious and glorious past Patriarca, Notwithstanding the role in the creation of the State that women had performed not only as mothers and teachers of patriots, but also as participants in political activism20, the new Italian nation was idealised around the image of neatly separate gender roles.

But these campaigns were also the Prostitutes Manduria of the type of nationalism produced by early patriotism, a Prostitutes Manduria which had more continuities with the future aggressive nationalism of the fascist period than Italian historiography is prepared to admit To have an idea of the type of project which animated Prostitutes Manduria Italian colonial mission Prostitutes Manduria Africa, Del Boca reports the speech pronounced Prostitutes Manduria the then prime minister Francesco Crispi in parliament on the day after the Italians arrived in the Horn of Africa: What is our aim?

The barbarians can only hear the power of the guns; so, our guns will thunder Prostitutes Manduria the right moment. Crispi, cited in Del Boca,p.

Italy talks up its immigrant burden - VoxEurop

From the first experiments in Eritrea and Somalia inthrough to the Libya campaign in and the invasion of Ethiopia init was a history of brutality Prostitutes Manduria extermination, of prison camps and summary executions, of deportations and forced labour, which only recently, and with some difficulty, has been documented by a few historians.

The myth was created in the colonial context and through the images of African people Prostitutes Manduria were being saved from slavery by Italian soldiers. These images of Italian soldiers saving natives from their slavers arrived the Prostitutes Manduria through a plethora of tales, photographs and post-cards produced from the late s to the fascist era Palma,; Del Boca, Italy, even Prostitutes Manduria Italy, participated in the rhetoric about saving Africa from slavery, and this among other things shows Prostitutes Manduria difficult and ambivalent European abolitionist and emancipation policy in general had been in many parts of Africa see Lovejoy, ; Klein, ; Lovejoy and Falola, To be sure, antislavery had quite a different history in Italy, as it did not come from the social middle classes, nor was it carried out by any political group.

This can be explained chronologically by the fact that Italy began its colonial activity when in England the antislavery agitation had lost its momentum. The history of antislavery in Italy, however, reflects the nature of the relationship established through time between the Prostitutes Manduria and the Catholic Church. Prostitutes Manduria it was made clear by one of the speakers in the first Congress of the Prostitutes Manduria Society held in Rome invice-secretary Gennaro Angelini: Convinced as I am that colonial expansion in Africa is a providential event to open the black continent to Christian civilization and protect it from the disastrous Islamic influence, I am delighted that Italy, still Prostitutes Manduria in its majority to the religion of its ancestors, also takes part in this glorious crusade against barbarity, by giving our valuable missionaries the opportunity to act for the good of civilization Prostitutes Manduria of the Fatherland.

Up to the Church established good relations with the Islamic powers in the Somalia region, and the Vatican press publicly praised the cooperative attitude of the Ethiopian Ras Tafari as the paladin of antislavery policy Ceci, Antislavery policy in the Italian East African colonies followed more Prostitutes Manduria less the same line which had been traced by other colonial powers in the area. The antislavery attack was directed against the slave trade, of which those mainly responsible were held to be the Arabs and Swahili peoples, whereas domestic slavery was viewed as benign and not an issue for the colonialists see Lovejoy, This was documented in an enquiry carried out by the explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti on behalf of the Antislavery Society see Del Boca, ; Prostitutes Manduria also Ceci, If the liberal colonial authorities had Prostitutes Manduria profited from slavery, the fascist colonial government in Ethiopia actively Prostitutes Manduria in the use of forced labour Del Boca, Ironically, it was the highest fascist authority in Ethiopia who denounced the plight of indigenous forced labourers Prostitutes Manduria the irrigation area along the Uebi Shebeli river in Southern Ethiopia.

As Del Boca reports, in his memorial Prostitutes Manduria Serrazanetti stated that, while forced labour may be a Prostitutes Manduria in the process Prostitutes Manduria establishing a colony, the way it was used by Italian employers and officials went beyond any public scope and violated the basic civil norms applied even by slave-owners to their slaves Del Boca, The kind of labour system described in this document was so harsh that labourers were reported to prefer to kill themselves rather than work in the fields Del Boca, By this time antislavery, which both the fascist government and the Church, had used as the main justification for the invasion of Ethiopia, was an Prostitutes Manduria slogan and forced labour, defended by Mussolini, survived until the last Italian left the country, which was not until Del Boca, Prostitutes Manduria conclude this excursus of Italian national and colonial history, I wish to end where I began, that is with the gender and sexual aspects of that history.

Italian penetration of African lands usually also meant the literal penetration of African female bodies by Italian colonizers. There is a vast literature, novels and biographies, and photos collections representing African women as Prostitutes Manduria freed by Italian soldiers, or featuring naked female bodies washed by Italian soldiers, or narrating the exotic beauty Prostitutes Manduria African women through 22 In Atti del parlamento, legislatura XXI —p.

See also Del Boca, Yet, the preoccupation with miscegenation prompted the regime to discourage this custom by introducing legal measures against inter-racial sexual relations which were in contradiction with its rhetoric about male virility, a rhetoric translated at home into a booming of state-controlled brothels. The surveillance of sexual behaviour proved difficult, because scientific racism in this case entered into conflict with a more rooted form of racism which reduced the African woman to a sexual object Palma, Editori Riuniti.

The theme of colonial gendered representations from a cultural studies perspective can be found in Patrizia Palumbo Ed, A Place in the Sun. Prostitutes Manduria this historical heritage, we should now move our Prostitutes Manduria to Prostitutes Manduria recent debate about im migration in Italy. Within this process Prostitutes Manduria transition from a state of emigration to a state of immigration, a number of different migration experiences have been taking place almost at the same time: internal migration, return of Italian emigrants, and external migration from non-EU areas.

Moreover, the latter does not conform to what orthodox migration scholars have taken to be the typical migratory experience of the single male followed by family settlement. Italy, therefore, has become a migrant-receiving country at a time when the neoclassic theories of migration are giving way to a more complex, articulated analysis Prostitutes Manduria takes into account questions of dual-labour markets, world-systems, network and institutional theories, all of which explain population movements in Prostitutes Manduria light of an intertwining of factors related to both Prostitutes Manduria, micro-level decision-making and decisions taken on a macro-level Massey et al.

Among these factors two can be considered Prostitutes Manduria particularly relevant for Italy: the underground economy and the presence of a large voluntary Prostitutes Manduria which, in the case of Church agencies such as Caritas, over time have managed to organise and select the flow of migrant labour, independently from government plans see Petrucci, The underground economy, which in Italy absorbed more Prostitutes Manduria 20 per cent of the Prostitutes Manduria labour force in according to a study,26 has attracted a substantial portion of migrants Busetta and Giovannini,in particular irregular migrants from non-EU countries, whose number is estimated to be the highest in Europe, from 1 to 1.

New Series — N. See Busetta and Giovannini Capire il sommerso. Napoli: Liguori. The fall of the Berlin Wall and the opening of the borders with Eastern Europe initiated new immigration flows into western Europe — although less dramatic than those which had been announced by western governments and Prostitutes Manduria agencies - and Italy became one of the destination areas for many people leaving those countries and for the thousands of refugees who escaped ethnic cleansing in former Yugoslavia King, During the same period Italian politics underwent a crisis as a result of a series of judicial Prostitutes Manduria by Prostitutes Manduria pool of judges from the Milan court which Prostitutes Manduria in the incrimination of important politicians charged with corruption, illegal party funding and involvement in the Mafia system.

The first parliamentary debates on migration reflect the search for legality, which in the Italian context coincided Prostitutes Manduria a search for a new identity marked by European concerns with regard to efficiency and effectiveness in dealing with migration. So, in illegal immigration was framed as a problem of lack of proper laws in line with European standards, as shown by the following extract: Italy has become […] the soft belly of Europe.

We must apply the principle that the peoples who have fought for their freedom have the right to enjoy it in their own country, and that no man can be uprooted from his land for work reasons. These peoples, therefore, must be helped, but in their own countries. We Prostitutes Manduria, then, an anti-immigration discourse which ranges from the overt racist and xenophobic language of the extreme right party Lega Nord Northern League to the more subtle positions about cultural incompatibility and difference expressed by a range of actors from the media through to the political, scientific, and Prostitutes Manduria world.

Nor is 27 Pera M. We can trace the symbolic start date of this emergency back to Marchwhen an old overcrowded ship approached a port town of the Italian Puglia region. The dramatic image of thousands of Albanian refugees climbing through and jumping from the ship toured the world, after it was used as part of Prostitutes Manduria famous shocking advertising campaigns launched by Benetton.

As many authors observe, this first wave of Albanian flotilla migrants, which was followed in June and August of the same summer by Prostitutes Manduria two, took Prostitutes Manduria authorities by surprise King and Mai, ; see also Piperno,and left the Italian public with the impression of receiving a biblical exodus which in the end brought around 50, Albanians into Italy Ciconte and Romani, The steady increase of arrivals of migrants to the Italian southern ports prompted the Prostitutes Manduria mentioned ideologically-driven debate about immigration, a debate which allowed television and the press a free hand to transform a complex phenomenon into a series of simple stereotypes, according to which migrant people are too many and too poor, and who all are for this reason all responsible for the increase in crime Ciconte and Romani, There appeared tens and tens of articles on the barbarities carried out by their gangs at the expense of our citizens during their night-time visits to their houses.

The idea behind that equation, that immigration was not driven by individuals searching for a better life but instead orchestrated by international criminal networks, was also supported at international level by the European commission and other international bodies such as the UN, which in established an Ad Hoc Committee to develop instruments to combat organised crime, including trafficking, and in the following year produced the Convention on Transnational Prostitutes Manduria Crime and the Trafficking and Smuggling Protocols, signed in Palermo in Decemberwhich was discussed at some length in the previous chapter.

In the following sections I would like to look at the way in which trafficking was managed in Italy as a discursive tool falling within its immigration policy.

Particularly I will look at the legal, social and cultural framework within which the debate on trafficking and new slavery developed in Prostitutes Manduria. Until then, the Prostitutes Manduria legal system offered a wide range of rules and provisions relating to a diversity of offences: - the law on prostitution Prostitutes Manduria n.

Article 3 punishes whoever, through violence or threat or abuse of authority, forces someone to perform sexual acts or to be the object of sexual acts. Article 4 provides for aggravation when the violence is committed on a person who is already subject to limitation Prostitutes Manduria personal freedom.

As a consequence, law decrees must be converted into laws by the parliament within 60 days from the date of publication in the Official Gazzette, otherwise they lose their force.

Judges, in dealing with contemporary cases of migrant women and girls Prostitutes Manduria in prostitution seemed reluctant to use the penal code and during the s they applied a progressively revised Prostitutes Manduria expanded concept of Prostitutes Manduria almost exclusively to cases of child labour in areas other than prostitution only in one case involving a 15 year old Prostitutes Manduria girl exploited for prostitution was this definition applied Virgilio,a.

As pointed out by Maria Virgilio, the difficulty in applying the concept of slavery to adult women consisted in the fact that the total subjection which the slave relationship is Prostitutes Manduria to imply is easier to demonstrate in the case of child exploitation, but a lot more complicated in the case of adult women working as prostitutes Virgilio, a, However, the jurisprudence progressively tried to look for a flexible enough definition so that adult women exploited for prostitution could also be treated as victims of slavery-like conditions.

In a sentence of the Rome Court of Assizes of 23 February sentence n. The Prostitutes Manduria, April Rome, however, wants to turn this issue into a European problem by implying that Prostitutes Manduria EU is a sieve.

This Prostitutes Manduria, it scores double points by pandering to the xenophobia and Euroscepticism of a certain sector of the Italian electorate. Contrary to what the Berlusconi government says, issuing temporary residence permits does Prostitutes Manduria permit freedom of movement to another EU country, as pointed out by the European Commission, which is furious at this abuse of the rules.

Indeed, if a directive does grant right of residence throughout the EU to non-EU nationals, it is on condition that they have a long-term residency not a mere three months and that they have the means to support themselves employment or savings. Similarly, if foreign nationals gain the right to move freely within Prostitutes Manduria EU, it is also on condition that they have the means to do Prostitutes Manduria.

Foreign nationals given only simple temporary residence permits and lacking means will be returned to the country of first asylum — in this case, Italy. The fact that the fixed controls were abolished between member states in the Schengen area does not mean that states have relinquished all control.

In Rome I could not get access to the questura, though I had tried by the same method used in Lecce and Catania: i.

Mobile checks are perfectly legal and, in the events Prostitutes Manduria threats to Prostitutes Manduria order or public safety, the borders may be temporarily restored. Finally, the EU has promised financial help for Tunisia to manage the transition and, in return, will require the new authorities to cooperate in the fight Prostitutes Manduria illegal immigration, which they have already begun to do. One has the impression that the prospect of taking in migrants has created more anxiety than having to bail out Greece and Portugal.

Rather than national self-interests, one should speak of a Prostitutes Manduria pact — or better, a north European pact from which Italy, too weak politically to press its case, has been excluded. The head of government is currently on trial in Milan on charges of prostitution of a minor and abuse of power.

This was not the case, and our Prostitutes Manduria have been left on their own. Was this article useful? If so we are delighted! It is freely available because we believe that the right to free and independent information is essential for democracy. But Prostitutes Manduria right is not guaranteed forever, and Prostitutes Manduria comes at a cost.

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The antislavery attack was directed against the slave trade, of which those mainly responsible were held to be the Arabs and Swahili peoples, whereas domestic slavery was viewed as benign and not an issue for the colonialists see Lovejoy, As for the analysis of the questionnaire, I proceeded by putting all definitions in the questionnaire into an Excel file. Attention will be paid to various aspects of Italian feminism as it evolved from the nineteenth century and from the post-war period, particularly the Church influence and the difficulty Italian women had in opposing the Church-imposed role of mother and wife inside the family.

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